Microbiology of plants. Bacteriologists have relatively long discovered, along with pathogenic bacteria, those that are simply necessary for the life of humans, animals and plants, for the normal course of the natural circulation of substances.
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MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
FEDERAL STATE EDUCATIONAL
INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
Ural State Agricultural Academy
Test
"Plant Microbiology"
Completed by: Bunkov I.A.
Yekaterinburg 2012
Introduction
5. Microbiology of feed, hay
6. The role of microorganisms in nature and agriculture production
Conclusion
Introduction
Microbiology (from micro... and biology), a science that studies microorganisms - bacteria, mycoplasmas, actinomycetes, yeasts, microscopic fungi and algae - their systematics, morphology, physiology, biochemistry, heredity and variability, distribution and role in the circulation of substances in nature, practical value.
The science of the smallest organisms that are not visible to the naked eye. Microbiology studies the structure of microbes (morphology), their chemical organization and patterns of life (physiology), variability and heredity (genetics of microorganisms), relationships with other organisms, including humans, and their role in the formation of the biosphere. During the historical The development of microbiology as a science was divided into general, agricultural, veterinary, medical and industrial. General microbiology studies the patterns of vital activity of microbes as organisms, as well as the role of microbes in maintaining life on Earth, in particular, their participation in the cycle of carbon, nitrogen, energy, etc.
1. Three areas of practical application
So, microbiology is a science that studies microorganisms, their properties, distribution and role in the cycle of substances in nature. Three areas of practical application of microbiological knowledge are widely known, three main areas, without which it is impossible to imagine modern life. One of these areas is medical microbiology, which studies pathogenic microorganisms and develops methods to combat them. Medical microbiology. includes bacteriology, which studies bacteria - the causative agents of infectious diseases, mycology - a section on pathogenic fungi, protozoology, the object of study of which are pathogenic unicellular animal organisms, and, finally, honey. Virology is the study of pathogenic viruses. Reliable information about microbes was first obtained in the second half of the 17th century. by the Dutch scientist A. Leeuwenhoek, who described "living animals" in water, plaque, and infusions when viewed through a simple microscope that magnified objects 250-300 times.
Another is technical microbiology, under the "protection" of which is the production of alcohol and dairy products (using fermentation processes), vitamins, antibiotics and hormones that are so necessary for a person. Technical, or industrial, microbiology studies the chemical processes caused by microbes that lead to the formation of alcohols, acetone, and other products important to humans. In recent years, such areas of technical microbiology as the production of vitamins, amino acids and antibiotics have also developed widely.
The third independent area of this science is soil microbiology, which studies the participation of microorganisms in soil processes in order to optimize their use in agricultural production.
Microbiology entered the circle of scientific disciplines in the 17th century: its appearance is closely connected with the invention of the microscope. The golden age of microbiology began at the end of the 19th century, when the industrial and technical development of human society, together with the development of the chemistry of dyes, the progress of optics, and the remarkable discoveries of bacteriologists, made a real revolution in medicine and medical thinking. The discovery of the causative agents of a significant part of the infectious diseases of humans and animals - pathogens found in a peculiar kingdom of microorganisms can be attributed to separate links of this "revolution".
About what exactly refers to the motley galaxy of microorganisms, to the sphere controlled by microbiology, many do not always have an accurate and complete idea. Over the years, microbiology has become a vast and complex scientific discipline, and the reason for this lies not in some artificial complication of it, but in the fact that groups of microorganisms were discovered that could not be adjusted to any single, common denominator. This forced the division of microbiology into several special departments.
So far, five such “provinces” have been identified in the “state” of microbiology. True, its further development and differentiation definitely show that this five-membered subdivision is not final. But for today it satisfies us quite well. Here is a brief listing and definition of the groups mentioned.
Virology is the study of viruses.
Bacteriology deals with the study of bacteria (experts consider them the most ancient inhabitants of the Earth) and actinomycetes (single-celled microorganisms similar in organization to bacteria).
Mycology is the study of lower (microscopic) fungi.
Algology is the study of microscopic algae.
Protozoology has the object of its study of the simplest - unicellular animals, standing in the classification system on the verge of the plant and animal world.
We have listed these divisions according to the increase in the size of microorganisms.
Viruses in comparison with other groups of microorganisms are immeasurably smaller. It was their negligible size that gave microbiologists (in the period of the birth of virology) the main opportunity to distinguish them from bacteria. Viruses range in size from 20 to 300 nanometers (one nanometer is equal to a millionth of a millimeter).
In the "young years" of virology, the term "filterable virus" (from Latin virus - poison) was used to refer to a non-bacterial pathogen of any disease.
The original term emphasized the peculiar property of pathogens - the ability to pass through filters that do not let the smallest bacteria pass.
Further studies have shown that viruses represent a special group of infectious agents and their study requires the use of completely new methods. As a result, a new independent branch of microbiology, virology, emerged. This allocation was unconditionally accepted by all scientists. From the very beginning, virology was regarded as the younger sister of bacteriology.
However, between these two branches of science, or rather, their objects, there is an essential difference.
Bacteriologists have relatively long discovered, along with pathogenic bacteria, those that are simply necessary for the life of humans, animals and plants, for the normal course of the natural circulation of substances in nature and many technological processes in the food and pharmaceutical industries.
2. Emergence and development of microbiology
microorganism biology food
Several thousand years before the emergence of microbiology as a science, man, not knowing about the existence of microorganisms, widely used them for the preparation of koumiss and other fermented milk products, for the production of wine, beer, vinegar, for ensiling fodder, and flax lobe. For the first time, bacteria and yeast were seen by A. Leeuwenhoek, who examined dental plaque, herbal infusions, beer, etc. with the help of microscopes he made. The creator of microbiology as a science was L. Pasteur, who elucidated the role of microorganisms in fermentations (winemaking, brewing) and in the occurrence of animal and human diseases. Of exceptional importance for the fight against infectious diseases was the method of preventive vaccinations proposed by Pasteur, based on the introduction of weakened cultures of pathogenic microorganisms into the body of an animal or person. Long before the discovery of viruses, Pasteur proposed vaccination against a viral disease - rabies. He also proved that in modern terrestrial conditions spontaneous generation of life is impossible. These works served as a scientific basis for the sterilization of surgical instruments and dressings, the preparation of canned food, the pasteurization of food products, etc. Pasteur's ideas on the role of microorganisms in the circulation of substances in nature were developed by the founder of general microbiology in Russia, S. N. Vinogradsky, who discovered chemoautotrophic microorganisms (they absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere due to the oxidation energy of inorganic substances; see Chemosynthesis), nitrogen-fixing microorganisms, and bacteria that decompose cellulose under aerobic conditions. His student V. L. Omelyansky discovered anaerobic bacteria that ferment, that is, decompose cellulose under anaerobic conditions, and bacteria that form methane. A significant contribution to the development of microbiology was made by the Dutch school of microbiologists, who studied the ecology, physiology, and biochemistry of various groups of microorganisms (Mikrobiology Beijerinck, A. Kluiver, and K. van Niel). An important role in the development of medical microbiology belongs to R. Koch, who proposed dense nutrient media for growing microorganisms and discovered the pathogens of tuberculosis and cholera. The development of medical microbiology and immunology was promoted by E. Behring (Germany), E. Roux (France), S. Kitazato (Japan), and in Russia and the USSR by I.I. Mechnikov, L.A. Tarasevich, D.K. Zabolotny, N.F. Gamaleya.
The development of microbiology and the needs of practice led to the separation of a number of sections of microbiology into independent scientific disciplines. General microbiology studies the fundamental laws of the biology of microorganisms. Knowledge of the basics of general microbiology is necessary when working in any of the special sections of microbiology; the content, boundaries and tasks of general microbiology have gradually changed.
Previously, the objects studied by her also included viruses, protozoa of plant or animal origin (protozoa), higher fungi and algae. Foreign manuals on general microbiology still describe these objects.
The task of technical or industrial microbiology includes the study and implementation of microbiological processes used to obtain yeast, feed protein, lipids, bacterial fertilizers, as well as the production of antibiotics, vitamins, enzymes, amino acids, nucleotides, organic acids, etc., by microbiological synthesis. . (see also Microbiological Industry).
Agricultural microbiology elucidates the composition of soil microflora, its role in the cycle of substances in the soil, as well as its significance for the structure and fertility of the soil, the effect of processing on microbiological processes in it, and the effect of bacterial preparations on plant productivity. The task of agricultural microbiology includes the study of microorganisms that cause plant diseases, and the fight against them, the development of microbiological methods of controlling insects - pests of agricultural crops. plants and forest species, as well as methods of fodder conservation, flax lobe, crop protection from spoilage caused by microorganisms.
Geological microbiology studies the role of microorganisms in the circulation of substances in nature, in the formation and destruction of mineral deposits, and proposes methods for obtaining (leaching) metals (copper, germanium, uranium, and tin) and other minerals from ores with the help of bacteria.
Aquatic Microbiology studies the quantitative and qualitative composition of the microflora of salt and fresh waters and its role in the biochemical processes occurring in water bodies, monitors the quality of drinking water, and improves microbiological methods of wastewater treatment.
The task of medical microbiology includes the study of microorganisms that cause human diseases and the development of effective methods to combat them. The same questions regarding agricultural and other animals are solved by veterinary microbiology.
The peculiarity of the structure and reproduction of viruses, as well as the use of special methods for their study, led to the emergence of virology as an independent science that is not related to microbiology.
Both general microbiology and its special sections are developing exceptionally rapidly. There are three main reasons for this development. First, thanks to advances in physics, chemistry, and technology, microbiology has acquired a large number of new research methods. Secondly, the practical use of microorganisms has sharply increased. Thirdly, microorganisms began to be used to solve the most important biological problems, such as heredity and variability, biosynthesis of organic compounds, regulation of metabolism, etc. The successful development of modern microbiology is impossible without a harmonious combination of research conducted at the population, cellular, organoid and molecular levels. . To obtain cell-free enzyme systems and fractions containing certain intracellular structures, apparatuses are used that destroy microorganism cells, as well as gradient centrifugation, which makes it possible to obtain cell particles with different masses. To study the morphology and cytology of microorganisms, new types of microscopic equipment have been developed. In the USSR, the method of capillary microscopy was invented, which made it possible to discover a new, previously unobservable world of microorganisms with a peculiar morphology and physiology.
To study the metabolism and chemical composition of microorganisms, various methods of chromatography, mass spectrometry, the method of isotope indicators, electrophoresis, and other physical and physicochemical methods have become widespread. Pure preparations of enzymes are also used to detect organic compounds. New methods for isolating and chemically purifying waste products of microorganisms (adsorption and chromatography on ion-exchange resins, as well as immunochemical methods based on the specific adsorption of a certain product, such as an enzyme, by animal antibodies formed after the introduction of this substance) have been proposed. The combination of cytological and biochemical research methods led to the emergence of functional morphology of microorganisms. Using an electron microscope, it became possible to study the fine features of the structure of cytoplasmic membranes and ribosomes, their composition and functions (for example, the role of cytoplasmic membranes in the processes of transport of various substances or the participation of ribosomes in protein biosynthesis).
Laboratories were enriched with fermenters of various capacities and designs. Continuous cultivation of microorganisms, based on the constant influx of fresh nutrient medium and the outflow of liquid culture, has become widespread. It has been established that along with cell reproduction (culture growth), culture develops, i.e. age-related changes in the cells that make up the culture, accompanied by a change in their physiology (young cells, even multiplying intensively, are not able to synthesize many waste products, for example, acetone, butanol , antibiotics produced by older cultures). Modern methods for studying the physiology and biochemistry of microorganisms have made it possible to decipher the features of their energy metabolism, the biosynthesis pathways for amino acids, many proteins, antibiotics, certain lipids, hormones, and other compounds, and also to establish the principles of regulation of metabolism in microorganisms.
3. Connection of microbiology with other sciences
Microbiology is to some extent connected with other sciences: morphology and taxonomy of lower plants and animals (mycology, algology, protistology), plant physiology, biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, evolutionary theory, molecular biology, organic chemistry, agrochemistry, soil science, biogeochemistry , hydrobiology, chemical and microbiological technology, etc. Microorganisms are favorite objects of research in solving general problems of biochemistry and genetics (see Genetics of microorganisms, Molecular genetics). So, with the help of mutants that have lost the ability to carry out one of the stages of the biosynthesis of any substance, the mechanisms for the formation of many natural compounds (for example, the amino acids lysine, arginine, etc.) were deciphered. The study of the mechanism of molecular nitrogen fixation for reproducing it on an industrial scale is aimed at searching for catalysts similar to those that, under mild conditions, carry out nitrogen fixation in bacterial cells. There is constant competition between microbiology and chemistry in choosing the most economical routes for the synthesis of various organic substances. A number of substances that were previously obtained microbiologically are now produced on the basis of a purely chemical synthesis (ethyl and butyl alcohols, acetone, methionine, the antibiotic chloramphenicol, etc.). Some syntheses are carried out both chemically and microbiologically (vitamin B2, lysine, etc.). In a number of industries, microbiological and chemical methods are combined (penicillin, steroid hormones, vitamin C, etc.). Finally, there are products and preparations that so far can only be obtained by microbiological synthesis (many antibiotics of complex structure, enzymes, lipids, feed protein, etc.).
4. Practical importance of microbiology
Actively participating in the circulation of substances in nature, microorganisms play an important role in soil fertility, in the productivity of water bodies, in the formation and destruction of mineral deposits. The ability of microorganisms to mineralize the organic remains of animals and plants is especially important. The ever-increasing use of microorganisms in practice has led to the emergence of the microbiological industry and to a significant expansion of microbiological research in various branches of industry and agriculture. Previously, technical microbiology mainly studied various fermentations, and microorganisms were used mainly in the food industry. New areas of technical microbiology are also developing rapidly, requiring a different instrumentation for microbiological processes. The cultivation of microorganisms began to be carried out in large-capacity closed fermenters, methods were improved for separating the cells of microorganisms from the cultural liquid, isolating from the latter and chemically purifying their metabolic products. One of the first arose and developed the production of antibiotics. Amino acids (lysine, glutamic acid, tryptophan, etc.), enzymes, vitamins, and fodder yeasts are obtained on a large scale microbiologically from nonfood raw materials (sulfite liquors, hydrolysates of wood, peat, and agricultural plant waste, petroleum hydrocarbons, and natural gas, phenolic or starchy wastewater, etc.). Microbiological production of polysaccharides is being carried out and industrial biosynthesis of lipids is being mastered. The use of microorganisms in agriculture has increased dramatically. The production of bacterial fertilizers has increased, in particular nitragin, which is prepared from cultures of nodule bacteria that fix nitrogen under conditions of symbiosis with leguminous plants and is used to infect seeds of leguminous crops. New direction of page - x. microbiology is connected with microbiological methods of struggle against insects and their larvae - pests of page - x. plants and forests. Bacteria and fungi that kill these pests with their toxins have been found, and the production of appropriate drugs has been mastered. Dried cells of lactic acid bacteria are used to treat intestinal diseases of humans and page - x. animals.
The division of microorganisms into useful and harmful is conditional, because. evaluation of the results of their activities depends on the conditions in which it manifests itself. Thus, the decomposition of cellulose by microorganisms is important and useful in plant residues or in the digestion of food in the digestive tract (animals and humans are not able to absorb cellulose without its preliminary hydrolysis by the microbial cellulase enzyme). At the same time, cellulose-decomposing microorganisms destroy fishing nets, ropes, cardboard, paper, books, cotton fabrics, etc. To obtain protein, microorganisms are grown on hydrocarbons of oil or natural gas. At the same time, large quantities of oil and products of its processing are decomposed by microorganisms in oil fields or during their storage. Even pathogenic microorganisms cannot be classified as absolutely harmful, because. vaccines are prepared from them that protect animals or humans from diseases. Spoilage by microorganisms of plant and animal raw materials, foodstuffs, building and industrial materials and products has led to the development of various methods for their protection (low temperature, drying, sterilization, canning, adding antibiotics and preservatives, acidification, etc.). In other cases, it becomes necessary to accelerate the decomposition of certain chemicals, such as pesticides, in the soil. The role of microorganisms in wastewater treatment (mineralization of substances contained in wastewater) is great.
5. Microbiology of feed, hay
Ordinary hay is made from cut grasses that have a moisture content of 70-80% and contain a large amount of free water. Microorganisms use this water for their development. During the drying process, free water evaporates and remains bound, which is inaccessible to microorganisms.
At a hay moisture content of 12-17%, microbiological processes stop, which stops the destruction of dried plants. After drying, a large number of epiphytes remain in the hay, which are in an anabiotic state, since in such an environment there are no conditions for their reproduction. When water gets inside the stack or stack, the activity of microorganisms begins to intensify. The process is characterized by an increase in temperature to 40-50 degrees and above.
In this case, the death of mesophiles occurs, and the activity of microorganisms begins to intensify. After 4-5 days, the temperature rises to 70-80 degrees, charring occurs, the plants become first brown and then black. At 90 degrees, microorganisms cease their activity. Brown hay is prepared as follows: mowed and well-dried grass is folded into small piles, then into stacks, stacks. Since the plant mass still contains free water, microorganisms begin to multiply, heat is released, which contributes to the final drying of the plants.
Senage - a method of preserving dried herbs, mainly legumes, harvested at the beginning of budding. Grasses are mowed, laid in rolls. A day later, the grass, dried to 50-55% moisture, is picked up, crushed and loaded into well-insulated feed storages.
In trenches, the plant mass is compacted, insulated with a plastic film, on which straw, sawdust, and then earth are placed. Haylage is a green plant mass with low humidity, preserved under the influence of physiological dryness and biochemical processes caused by microorganisms, when it is in feed storage facilities isolated from atmospheric oxygen. The number of lactic acid and putrefactive microbes in haylage is 4-5 times less than in silage.
The maximum number of microorganisms is formed on the 15th day. The rate of flow of microbiological processes is associated with the formation of organic acids. Carbohydrates serve as energy material for animals and microorganisms. Microorganisms convert soluble carbohydrates into organic acids and thereby deplete the feed.
In haylage, as a result of the hydrolysis of polysaccharides, the amount of sugar increases. Increased osmotic pressure primarily inhibits the growth of butyric microbes, then lactic acid and putrefactive ones. This creates favorable conditions for the development of lactic acid bacteria. This lowers the pH, which, together with pressure, prevents the development of butyric acid bacteria, so there is no butyric acid in the silage. Feed yeasting is a microbiological method of preparing feed for feeding.
Yeast enriches food not only with protein, but also with vitamins and enzymes. For economic purposes, cultural races of yeast have been bred: beer, baker, fodder. Yeast contains 48-52% proteins, 13-16 carbohydrates, 2-3 fats, 22-40 BEV, 6-10% ash, many amino acids.
Yeast requires oxygen for its growth and development, a temperature of 25-30 degrees, the yeast process lasts 9-12 hours. Yeast thrives on plant-derived foods that are rich in carbohydrates. Feed of animal origin should not be yeasted, as putrefactive microorganisms quickly develop on such media.
Yeast is carried out in a dry, bright and spacious room. 3 ways: steamy, steamless, starter. Spongy: prepare a dough - diluted pressed yeast 1% is mixed with food (fifth), for 6 hours every 20 minutes is stirred, then the rest of the food is added, double the amount of water and mixed again.
The mixture is left for another 3 hours, during which, with occasional stirring, yeast occurs. The safe method is based on the yeasting of the entire mass of feed at once. Take 1% pressed yeast, dilute with warm water, mix with food and double the amount of water. For 8-10 hours, the mixture is stirred every 30 minutes.
The starter method is used when there is little yeast. The starter is prepared: 0.5 kg of pressed yeast is propagated in a small amount of well-fermenting carbohydrate feed at a temperature of 30 degrees for 5 hours. Then the food is malted, doused with boiling water, and kept at a temperature of at least 60 degrees for 5-6 hours. The same amount of water and half of the leaven are added to the malted feed. Stir, cover and leave for 6 hours in a warm place.
The second part of the starter is added to a new portion of the malted feed and this is done 5-10 times, after which a new primary starter is prepared.
6. The role of microorganisms in nature and agricultural production
The wide distribution of microorganisms indicates their enormous role in nature. With their participation, the decomposition of various organic substances in soils and water bodies occurs, they determine the circulation of substances and energy in nature; soil fertility, the formation of coal, oil, and many other minerals depend on their activity. Microorganisms are involved in rock weathering and other natural processes. With the most active, wide participation of microorganisms in nature, mainly in the soil and hydrosphere, two opposite processes are constantly carried out: the synthesis of complex organic compounds from mineral substances and, conversely, the decomposition of organic substances to mineral ones. The unity of these opposite processes underlies the biological role of microorganisms in the circulation of substances in nature.
Among the various processes of transformation of substances in nature, in which microorganisms take an active part, the circulation of nitrogen, carbon, phosphorus, sulfur, iron is of paramount importance for the implementation of the life of plants, animals and humans on Earth. Many microorganisms are used in industrial and agricultural production. Thus, baking, the manufacture of fermented milk products, winemaking, the production of vitamins, enzymes, food and feed proteins, organic acids, and many substances used in agriculture, industry, and medicine are based on the activity of various microorganisms.
The use of microorganisms in crop production and animal husbandry is especially important. The enrichment of the soil with nitrogen, the control of pests of agricultural crops with the help of microbial preparations, the proper preparation and storage of feed, the creation of feed protein, antibiotics and microbial substances for animal feed depend on them. Microorganisms have a positive effect on the processes of decomposition of substances of non-natural origin - xenobiotics, artificially synthesized, falling into soils and water bodies and polluting them.
Along with beneficial microorganisms, there is a large group of so-called disease-causing, or pathogenic, microorganisms that cause various diseases of agricultural animals, plants, insects and humans. Some microorganisms cause damage to agricultural products, lead to depletion of the soil with nitrogen, cause pollution of water bodies, and the accumulation of toxic substances (for example, microbial toxins). As a result of their vital activity, epidemics of contagious diseases of humans and animals arise, which affects the development of the economy and the productive forces of society. The latest scientific data not only significantly expanded the understanding of soil microorganisms and the processes they cause in the environment, but also made it possible to create new industries in industry and agricultural production.
For example, antibiotics secreted by soil microorganisms have been discovered, and the possibility of their use for the treatment of humans, animals and plants, as well as for the storage of agricultural products, has been shown. The ability of soil microorganisms to form biologically active substances was discovered: vitamins, amino acids, plant growth stimulants - growth substances, etc. Ways have been found to use the protein of microorganisms for feeding farm animals. Microbial preparations have been identified that enhance the flow of nitrogen into the soil from the air. The discovery of new methods for obtaining hereditarily modified forms of beneficial microorganisms has made it possible to use microorganisms more widely in agricultural and industrial production, as well as in medicine.
The development of gene or genetic engineering is especially promising. Its achievements ensured the development of biotechnology, the emergence of highly productive microorganisms synthesizing proteins, enzymes, vitamins, antibiotics, growth substances and other products necessary for animal husbandry and crop production. Humanity has always been in contact with microorganisms, for millennia without even knowing it.
Since time immemorial, people have observed dough fermentation, prepared alcoholic beverages, fermented milk, made cheese, suffered various diseases, including epidemic ones. However, until the middle of the last century, no one even imagined that various kinds of fermentation processes and diseases could be the result of the activity of negligibly small creatures.
Conclusion
On the basis of certain facts, it can be assumed that virological research will retain the role of the main driving force in microbiology for at least the next thirty to fifty years. The current state of this rapidly developing research suggests that the progress made in improving and accelerating the diagnostic processes of viral diseases, so important for immediate and specific therapeutic measures, will continue.
Why is immediate intervention so important? Yes, because as soon as the virus in the cells begins to multiply and causes the characteristic symptoms of the disease in the patient's body, the introduction of any drugs will no longer be able to achieve full success.
In connection with the development of diagnostics, undoubtedly, new “generations” of drugs will be created faster, more perfectly “fitted” to a given disease. When making them, they will proceed from knowledge of the characteristics of the molecular biology of reproduction of certain types of viruses, as well as the specifics of the biochemical properties of various types of cells (nerve, liver cells, etc.).
With a high probability, we can expect a significant expansion and deepening of knowledge about the viral origin of many lesions of the central nervous system that proceed according to the degenerative type, from which many people suffer. Undoubtedly, the list of diseases, either caused by viruses or those in which the virus plays a dominant role along with other factors, will expand significantly.
The accelerated and increasingly efficient progress of infectious disease research in the modern age can be illustrated by many convincing facts. From 1880 to 1950, new discoveries accumulated relatively slowly, although it was during these 70 years that many major observations were made. In the subsequent period, virology began to develop at a much faster pace due to the use of new scientific approaches and techniques.
Virologists have received a more or less complete picture of the structure of viruses and information about the mechanism of infection of a cell with a virus. Great progress can also be noted in studies of viral infections at the molecular level, in connection with which success can also be expected in the search for new antiviral substances. There are already some encouraging facts here, including tumors of viral origin.
Thanks to the efforts of the World Health Organization and the intensive development of medicine in many countries of the world, the system of virological and epidemiological surveillance has been improved in the elimination of mass viral infections, as well as in the detection of contagious diseases that had not previously occurred in these areas. The medical service strictly controls passenger and goods, international and intercontinental transport in order to prevent the "import" of infections from other countries not only by passengers, crew, but also by animals and even plants transported. The search for possible centers of infectious diseases is carried out in the most remote corners of our planet, and highly specialized units of the health service penetrate into developing countries, where even in the recent past it was difficult to even think about eliminating infectious diseases. In our time of heavy use of transport and a brisk exchange of goods, the seriousness of "local" infections cannot be neglected. Today, such an infection that occurs in one country can, thanks to high-speed transport, manifest itself in a place hundreds and thousands of kilometers away from the original focus.
List of used literature
1. Achievements of Soviet microbiology, Microbiology, 1989; Microbiology, Fundamentals of Microbiology, trans. from English, Microbiology, 1995;
2. Rabotnova I.L., General microbiology, Microbiology, 1966; "Microbiology", 1987, v. 36, c. 6;
3. Meynell J., Meynell E., Experimental microbiology, trans. from English, Microbiology, 1967;
4. Schlegel G., General microbiology, trans. from German, Microbiology, 1972.
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Work program of the discipline
Microbiology
Direction of training
110400.62 "Agronomy"
Training profile:
"Agribusiness"
Qualification (degree) of the graduate
bachelor
Form of study full-time, part-time
Kazan 2013
Compiled by:
Daminova Anisa Ildarovna, candidate of agricultural sciences, associate professor
Pakhomova Valentina Mikhailovna, Doctor of Biological Sciences, Professor
The program is compiled in accordance with the documents:
1. Federal State Educational Standard of Higher Professional Education in the direction of training 110400 Agronomy approved by order of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation dated December 22, 2009 No. 811
2. The main educational program of higher professional education in the direction of training 110400 Agronomy was approved by the rector of the Kazan State Agrarian University on April 21, 2011 (minutes No. 4).
3. The working curriculum for the direction of training 110400 Agronomy was approved by the rector of the Kazan State Agrarian University on March 31, 2011 (minutes No. 3).
The work program was discussed and approved at a meeting of the Department of Biotechnology, Animal Husbandry and Chemistry on June 11, 2013 (Minutes No. 6).
Head department Sharafutdinov G.S.
Considered and approved at the meeting of the methodological commission of the Faculty of Agronomy dated 17.06. 2013 (Minutes No. 11).
Previous method. Commission Gilyazov M.Yu.
Agreed:
Dean Minikaev R.V.
Head of the graduating department
horticulture and horticulture,
Doctor of Agricultural Sciences, prof. Amirov M.F.
"__" _______ 2013
Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………………….4
1. Goals and objectives of mastering the discipline………………………………………………………………………………………………………4
2. The place of discipline in the structure of the PEP HPE…………………………………………………….4
3. Requirements for the results of mastering the content of the discipline "Microbiology"……….4
4.1. The volume of discipline and types of educational work………………………………………………..5
4.3. Thematic plan of the discipline……………………………………………………………….7
4.4. Practical classes (seminars)……………………………………………………………..7
4.5. Laboratory work………………………………………………………………………...7
4.6. Independent work……………………………………………………………………………8
4.7. Approximate topics of course projects (works)…………………………………………...................................8
5. Educational technologies………………………………………………………………………………9
6. Educational and methodological support for independent work of students. Evaluation tools for ongoing monitoring of progress, intermediate certification based on the results of mastering the discipline
6.1. Educational and methodological support of independent work of students .................................... 9
6.2. Evaluation tools for ongoing monitoring of progress, intermediate certification based on the results of mastering the discipline……………………………………………………………………………………………9
7. Educational, methodological and information support of the discipline……………………...17
8. Means of ensuring the development of discipline…………………………………………………..17
9. Logistics of discipline……………………………………….17
student……………………………………………………………………………………...18
11. Interdepartmental coordination of related issues of discipline……………………….19
12. Additions and changes to the work program for 201__ / 201 __ academic year………….19
annotation
Brief content of the discipline: In the course of this discipline, general and agricultural microbiology are studied. The section "General Microbiology" studies the structure and chemical composition of microorganism cells, their systematics, features of energy and constructive metabolism, and ways of exchanging genetic information. The section "Agricultural microbiology" studies soil microbiology and the practical use of microorganisms in various technological processes in agriculture.
Goals and objectives of mastering the discipline
The purpose of mastering the discipline "Microbiology" is the formation of knowledge on the basics of general and agricultural microbiology and the ability to use the knowledge gained to solve practical problems of agricultural production.
Discipline tasks:
To study the systematics, morphology, genetics and reproduction of bacteria; metabolism of microorganisms, participation of microorganisms in the transformations of various compounds;
To study soil microorganisms and master methods for determining their composition and activity;
To form concepts about the role of microorganisms in the soil-forming process and the reproduction of soil fertility, microbiological processes in the production of organic fertilizers; on the influence of agricultural practices on soil microorganisms.
The place of discipline in the structure of the PEP HPE
The discipline is included in the basic part of the training cycle - B.3 Professional cycle.
The study of the discipline involves a preliminary study of the most important groups of microorganisms - viruses, bacteria and fungi, the key features of their organization, their role in natural processes and significance for humans.
The discipline is fundamental for the study of the following disciplines: plant physiology and biochemistry, agriculture, agrochemistry, plant growing.
3. Requirements for the results of mastering the content of the discipline
"Microbiology"
The process of studying the discipline is aimed at formation of elements of the following competencies in accordance with the Federal State Educational Standards of Higher Professional Education and the BEP in this area of training:
a) the graduate must have the following professional competence:
PC-4 - willingness to use microbiological technologies in the practice of production and processing of agricultural products.
As a result of mastering the discipline, the student must:
Know: the biology of microorganisms, the transformation of various compounds and substances by microorganisms (PC-4).
To be able to: use microbiological technologies in the practice of production and processing of agricultural products, assess the quality of agricultural products taking into account biochemical indicators and determine the method of its storage and processing, justify the technology of rough and succulent feed (PC-4).
Own (have skills): methods of laboratory analysis of soils, plants and crop products (PC-4).
Volume of discipline and types of educational work
Semester - 3. Form of intermediate certification - exam.
For distance learning: semester - 5. Form of intermediate certification - exam.
The total labor intensity of the discipline is 3 credits 108 hours.
| Type of study work | Total | Full-time education | Distance learning* | |||||||
| Distribution by semester | Distribution by semester | |||||||||
| Classroom activities (total) | ||||||||||
| Including: | - | - | - | |||||||
| Lectures | ||||||||||
| Practical exercises (PZ), Seminars (C) | ||||||||||
| Laboratory work (LR) | ||||||||||
| Independent work | ||||||||||
| Including: | - | - | - | |||||||
| abstract | - | |||||||||
| Self-preparation (independent study of sections, study and repetition of lecture material, material of textbooks and manuals, preparation for laboratory work and colloquium). | ||||||||||
| Exam preparation | ||||||||||
| Total labor input hour. credit | ||||||||||
| No. p / p | Name of the discipline section | Section content | Competency codes |
| General microbiology | Systematics, morphology and reproduction of bacteria. | PC-4 | |
| Genetics and selection of microorganisms | |||
| Microorganisms and the Environment | |||
| Physiology, metabolism and energy in microorganisms | |||
| Transformation of carbon compounds by microorganisms. Basic fermentation and oxidation processes | |||
| Participation of microorganisms in the cycle of nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, iron | |||
| Agricultural microbiology | Soil microbiology. The influence of agricultural practices on soil microorganisms | PC-4 | |
| Relationship between soil microorganisms and plants | |||
| Feed microbiology |
General microbiology»
"Systematics, morphology and reproduction of bacteria". Objects of microbiology, the place and role of microbiology in the system of biological sciences, the role of microorganisms in nature and human life.
General information on the systematics and nomenclature of prokaryotes. Principles of numerological and phylogenetic systematics.
Microorganisms that do not have a cellular structure. Morphological types of bacteria. Ultrastructure of a bacterial cell. Disputes and spore formation. Growth and reproduction of bacteria.
"Genetics and selection of microorganisms". Mechanisms of modification and mutation in bacteria, mechanisms of transformation, transduction and conjugation. Genetic engineering in microbiology.
"Microorganisms and the Environment". The effect of abiotic and biotic environmental factors on microorganisms. Physiological groups of microorganisms in relation to environmental factors. Influence of temperature, pH, availability of water, radiation, etc. on the activity of microorganisms.
"Physiology, metabolism and energy in microorganisms". Nutrition of bacteria. Mechanisms of transport across the cytoplasmic membrane. Nutritional needs. Food types. Enzymes and metabolism.
Obtaining energy by microorganisms. The role of ATP in the accumulation and transfer of energy. Types of energy processes. Fermentation. Aerobic respiration. Anaerobic respiration.
“Conversion of carbon compounds by microorganisms. Basic fermentation and oxidation processes. Cycle of carbon and oxygen in the biosphere. The significance of two cosmic processes - photosynthesis and mineralization of organic substances by microorganisms. Assimilation of CO 2 by microorganisms. Photosynthesis and chemosynthesis. Processes of mineralization of organic compounds and the role of various groups of microorganisms.
Alcoholic fermentation. The causative agents of alcoholic fermentation and their features. The chemistry of the process. Pasteur effect. The role of alcoholic fermentation in nature and human life.
Lactic acid fermentation and its causative agents. Features of lactic acid bacteria. Homofermentative, heterofermentative and bifid fermentation.
Types of fermentation caused by clostridia. Butyric fermentation, features of pathogens, importance in nature, agriculture and industry.
Decomposition of pectin substances and its role in the primary processing of bast fiber plants. Microbial transformation of cellulose. Pathogens, chemistry, meaning.
"The participation of microorganisms in the cycle of nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, iron". Participation of microorganisms in various stages of the nitrogen cycle. Participation of microorganisms in the sulfur cycle. Transformation of organic phosphorus compounds by microorganisms. The role of microorganisms in the conversion of inaccessible mineral compounds of phosphorus into soluble, available for plants. The role of microorganisms in the transformation of iron compounds.
Agricultural Microbiology»
Soil microbiology. Influence of agricultural practices on soil microorganisms”. soil microorganisms. Methods for determining their composition and activity. The role of microorganisms in soil formation and fertility. Microbial cenoses of various types of soils. Influence of agricultural practices on soil microorganisms.
« The relationship between soil microorganisms and plants. Microorganisms of the root zone and their effect on plants. Symbiosis of microorganisms and plants. plant mycorrhiza. epiphytic microflora. The role of epiphytic microorganisms in crop storage. Development of toxigenic fungi on plants.
« Microbiological soil fertilizers and plant protection products". Biological products that increase soil fertility and improve the growth and development of plants. Methods for the preparation and use of bacterial fertilizers based on nitrogen-fixing, phosphate-mobilizing, and other bacteria.
The use of microorganisms and their metabolites to protect plants from pathogens and insect pests.
« Feed microbiology". The use of lactic acid fermentation in feed production. Silage and haylage. Feed yeast. Application of bioconversion methods in agriculture.
4.3. Thematic plan of discipline
Agricultural biology, 2011, no. 3, p. 3-9.
UDC 631.46:579.64 :)
